Cell Metabolism

Define metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism in full details

The cell is a complex organisms in which many chemical reaction take place so as to maintain normal cellular function. Cell metabolism can be defined as the process through which cells manufacture ATP which provides energy to the cells. Cells have evolved to form highly efficient metabolic mechanisms which differ depending on the cell. Aerobic respiration is responsible for cellular energy needs in animals while photosynthesis is the energy source for plants. The biochemical processes taking place in a cell are influenced by enzymes. Enzymes are catalysts made of proteins and they speed up the reactions in the cells (Porth, Carol & Carol, 2011).

Anabolism and catabolism comprise the two sets of chemical reactions that make up metabolism. During Anabolism, the cells of living organisms synthesize complex molecules from simple molecules through the use of energy. The main aim of anabolic reactions is building up tissues and body organs. Anabolic processes are responsible for increase in bone and muscle mass in animal. The end product for this reaction is includes proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. All cells require anabolic process and catabolic processes. The anabolic processes consume energy that is released by the catabolic processes in the cell (Solomon, BERG & Martin, 2008).

Cell catabolism is where large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules with the release of energy. Some of the molecules broken down include polysaccharides which are broken down into monosaccharides and proteins into amino acids. The broken down molecules are used to form other bigger molecules or broken down to produce energy and waste products (Watson & Berry, 2003).

2. define endothermic and exothermic in full details

Chemical reactions occur with the release or absorption of energy to form the end products. The same case applies to cellular reactions occurring in the body or plant. Energy can be in the form of heat, sound or sound. The form of energy used by the cellular processes is heat energy from the ATP molecules. Monosaccharides in the cell absorb energy from the surrounding in form of ATP to form larger molecules called polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are larger molecules and are more complicated compared to monosaccharide chains. The amount of heat needed for endothermic reactions needs to be maintained at an optimum to ensure that the reaction speed is maintained. Low temperatures may make the enzymes inactive or destroy them, low temperature also make the rate of the reaction slow. High temperatures may denature the enzymes or destroy them. This may affect the nature of reaction for endothermic reactions.

Exothermic reactions are reactions that release energy in to the surrounding. In the cells, cell catabolism is an example of an exothermic reaction in which energy is released in to the surrounding cells. Polysaccharides are broken down with the release of energy in to the surrounding. The temperatures surrounding should also be optimal to ensure that the reaction takes place. High temperatures will affect the speed of reaction by affecting the enzymes (Hartl, Daniel & Maryellen, 2012).

3. why do biochemists often prefer to use the term “exergonic” and” energonic” instead of exothermic and endothermic

The term exergonic is used instead of exothermic and to refer to the chemical process taking place in the cell due to the meanings. The term endothermic evaluates the release of energy from a chemical reaction while exergonic refers to the release of energy in the form of work. The biochemist view the chemical processes taking place in the cell as work done in breaking up big molecules into small molecules. This work is thermodynamics terms involve the flow of energy in the system and the surrounding during a chemical process. The term exergonic refers to positive energy flow from the system to the surrounding in the downhill process. All the exergonic reactions in the cell take place spontaneously with the energy released being used to convert the small molecules into big molecules (Calladine, 2008).

The term endergonic is preferred instead of endothermic to refer to reactions that absorb energy because the endergonic reactions evaluate the absorbed energy in form of work. Work is done in using the energy in the surrounding in the system to enable the cell to convert small molecules into big molecules. Endergonic reactions in the cell are anabolic where energy is absorbed during formation of big molecules. Energy stored in the big molecules is released during the breakdown of the molecule into smaller particles. The main difference between the two sets of terms is the definition of energy and its quantification in the form of work (Hartl & Daniel, 2011).

4. Explain why less ATP is synthesized per molecule of FADH2, than per molecule of NADH.

Oxidative phosphorylation which takes place in the mitochondrial cristae comprise of an electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the molecule due establishment of a chemiosmotic gradient. NADH and FADH2 are electron donors and will donate their extra electrons to the electron transport chain. The electrons will reduce the oxygen in the cell to water in the last step of electron transportation. The reason why NADH yields more molecules of ATP compared to FADH2 lies on the number of electrons donated by the electron donors. Energy is required to produce ATP molecules from the electron donors; the ease of losing an electron from the electron donor to the transport chain also determines the amount of ATP formed. The H+ gradient for electron transportation for the two electron donors are situated in different locations of the mitochondrion. In the overall evaluation of the two proton donors, FADH2 has two protons pumped in the electron chain while NADH has three protons pumped during the electron transport process. Due to the difference in the number of protons pumped, the amount of energy generated from the NADH is more than the energy generated from FADH2. It is evident from the process that the more the protons donated to the transport chain the more the ATP molecules released from the electron donors (Schomburg & Lessel, 1996).

5. Describe the primary, secondary and tertiary structure of DNA.

DNA structure can be evaluated using primary, secondary or tertiary dimensions. The primary structure evaluates the chemical bonds and the atomic composition. The structure which is represented by GATC letters of the alphabet is the sequence of nucleotides in the deoxyribonucleic chain. The sequence represents the order of amino acids in the protein. The primary structure starts with amino-terminal and ends with the carboxyl-terminal. The secondary structure evaluates the three dimensional form of the nucleic acid making up the DNA strand. The atoms making up the molecule are evaluated in a three dimensional space. The secondary structure is defined by the hydrogen bonds in the atom. The secondary structure is a double helix which is supper coiled, twisted around histones. The tertiary structure is complicated and like the secondary structure, it is three dimensional. The nucleic acid has various functions including molecular recognition and catalysis. The tertiary structure is recurrent and it’s a motif used as a molecular building block. The tertiary structure can be predicted from the primary structure. This mode of prediction is known as structural prediction. Many proteins form complexes with DNA in the replication process and transcribing it into RNA. The proteins are also used in regulation of the transcription process. The proteins bind in a specific sequence to the DNA thus the primary sequence can be evaluated as the determinant of functionality (Sinden, 1994).

6. Define transcription and translation in full detail. Please cite all reference and in text

Transcription can be defined as the process where DNA is re-written into the messenger RNA. The process is very complicated it entails the conversion of genetic information stored in the DNA to RNA to facilitate the formation of specific proteins in the cells. The process takes place is the RNA polymerase in eukaryotic organism. The mRNA is made up of expressed and non-expressed regions called exons and introns. The genetic information is transferred to the ribosome and used to make the required protein from the amino acids. Translation can be defined simply as translating information from the nucleotide language to the amino acids in the formation of the proteins needed in the normal functioning of the human body (Engel, 2009).

Translation refers to the process where the mRNA transported to the cytoplasm is translated ensure that the right order of amino acids produces the right proteins. The translation process requires many enzymes. Ribosomal RNA combine with proteins to form the ribosome, the ribosome can accept one tRNA and mRNA at a time. These three types of RNA are used in the formation of proteins from the information stored in the DNA. The translation process takes place in three steps; the initiation is the first step where mRNA penetrates the cytoplasm. The second step is elongation where the amino acids are added to the chain. The last step is where the formation of the protein comes to the end. At this stage the ribosome falls apart (Garrett & Grisham, 2010).

Bibliography

Calladine, C.R. (2008). Understanding DNA the molecule & how it works. Amsterdam [etc.], Elsevier Academic Press.

Engel, P.C. (2009). Pain-free biochemistry an essential guide for the health sciences. Chichester, UK, Wiley-Blackwell.

Garrett, R., & Grisham, C.M. (2010). Biochemistry. Belmont, CA, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Hartl, Daniel L. (2011). Essential genetics: a genomics perspective. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Hartl, Daniel L., and Maryellen Ruvolo. (2012). Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes. Burlington, MA, Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Porth, Carol, and Carol Porth. (2011). Essentials of pathophysiology: concepts of altered health states. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Schomburg, D., & Lessel, U. (1996). Bioinformatics From Nucleic Acids and Proteins to Cell Metabolism. Weinheim, Wiley-VCH.

Sinden, R.R. (1994). DNA structure and function. San Diego, Calif. [u.a.], Academic Press.

Solomon, E.P., BERG, L.R., & Martin, D.W. (2008). Biology. Belmont (CA), Thomson.

Watson, J.D., & Berry, A. (2003). DNA: the secret of life. New York, Alfred A. Knopf.

Get Professional Assignment Help Cheaply

Are you busy and do not have time to handle your assignment? Are you scared that your paper will not make the grade? Do you have responsibilities that may hinder you from turning in your assignment on time? Are you tired and can barely handle your assignment? Are your grades inconsistent?

Whichever your reason is, it is valid! You can get professional academic help from our service at affordable rates. We have a team of professional academic writers who can handle all your assignments.

Why Choose Our Academic Writing Service?

• Plagiarism free papers
• Timely delivery
• Any deadline
• Skilled, Experienced Native English Writers
• Subject-relevant academic writer
• Adherence to paper instructions
• Ability to tackle bulk assignments
• Reasonable prices
• 24/7 Customer Support
• Get superb grades consistently

Online Academic Help With Different Subjects

Literature

Students barely have time to read. We got you! Have your literature essay or book review written without having the hassle of reading the book. You can get your literature paper custom-written for you by our literature specialists.

Finance

Do you struggle with finance? No need to torture yourself if finance is not your cup of tea. You can order your finance paper from our academic writing service and get 100% original work from competent finance experts.

Computer science

Computer science is a tough subject. Fortunately, our computer science experts are up to the match. No need to stress and have sleepless nights. Our academic writers will tackle all your computer science assignments and deliver them on time. Let us handle all your python, java, ruby, JavaScript, php , C+ assignments!

Psychology

While psychology may be an interesting subject, you may lack sufficient time to handle your assignments. Don’t despair; by using our academic writing service, you can be assured of perfect grades. Moreover, your grades will be consistent.

Engineering

Engineering is quite a demanding subject. Students face a lot of pressure and barely have enough time to do what they love to do. Our academic writing service got you covered! Our engineering specialists follow the paper instructions and ensure timely delivery of the paper.

Nursing

In the nursing course, you may have difficulties with literature reviews, annotated bibliographies, critical essays, and other assignments. Our nursing assignment writers will offer you professional nursing paper help at low prices.

Sociology

Truth be told, sociology papers can be quite exhausting. Our academic writing service relieves you of fatigue, pressure, and stress. You can relax and have peace of mind as our academic writers handle your sociology assignment.

Business

We take pride in having some of the best business writers in the industry. Our business writers have a lot of experience in the field. They are reliable, and you can be assured of a high-grade paper. They are able to handle business papers of any subject, length, deadline, and difficulty!

Statistics

We boast of having some of the most experienced statistics experts in the industry. Our statistics experts have diverse skills, expertise, and knowledge to handle any kind of assignment. They have access to all kinds of software to get your assignment done.

Law

Writing a law essay may prove to be an insurmountable obstacle, especially when you need to know the peculiarities of the legislative framework. Take advantage of our top-notch law specialists and get superb grades and 100% satisfaction.

What discipline/subjects do you deal in?

We have highlighted some of the most popular subjects we handle above. Those are just a tip of the iceberg. We deal in all academic disciplines since our writers are as diverse. They have been drawn from across all disciplines, and orders are assigned to those writers believed to be the best in the field. In a nutshell, there is no task we cannot handle; all you need to do is place your order with us. As long as your instructions are clear, just trust we shall deliver irrespective of the discipline.

Are your writers competent enough to handle my paper?

Our essay writers are graduates with bachelor's, masters, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees in various subjects. The minimum requirement to be an essay writer with our essay writing service is to have a college degree. All our academic writers have a minimum of two years of academic writing. We have a stringent recruitment process to ensure that we get only the most competent essay writers in the industry. We also ensure that the writers are handsomely compensated for their value. The majority of our writers are native English speakers. As such, the fluency of language and grammar is impeccable.

What if I don’t like the paper?

There is a very low likelihood that you won’t like the paper.

Reasons being:

• When assigning your order, we match the paper’s discipline with the writer’s field/specialization. Since all our writers are graduates, we match the paper’s subject with the field the writer studied. For instance, if it’s a nursing paper, only a nursing graduate and writer will handle it. Furthermore, all our writers have academic writing experience and top-notch research skills.
• We have a quality assurance that reviews the paper before it gets to you. As such, we ensure that you get a paper that meets the required standard and will most definitely make the grade.

In the event that you don’t like your paper:

• The writer will revise the paper up to your pleasing. You have unlimited revisions. You simply need to highlight what specifically you don’t like about the paper, and the writer will make the amendments. The paper will be revised until you are satisfied. Revisions are free of charge
• We will have a different writer write the paper from scratch.
• Last resort, if the above does not work, we will refund your money.

Will the professor find out I didn’t write the paper myself?

Not at all. All papers are written from scratch. There is no way your tutor or instructor will realize that you did not write the paper yourself. In fact, we recommend using our assignment help services for consistent results.

What if the paper is plagiarized?

We check all papers for plagiarism before we submit them. We use powerful plagiarism checking software such as SafeAssign, LopesWrite, and Turnitin. We also upload the plagiarism report so that you can review it. We understand that plagiarism is academic suicide. We would not take the risk of submitting plagiarized work and jeopardize your academic journey. Furthermore, we do not sell or use prewritten papers, and each paper is written from scratch.

When will I get my paper?

You determine when you get the paper by setting the deadline when placing the order. All papers are delivered within the deadline. We are well aware that we operate in a time-sensitive industry. As such, we have laid out strategies to ensure that the client receives the paper on time and they never miss the deadline. We understand that papers that are submitted late have some points deducted. We do not want you to miss any points due to late submission. We work on beating deadlines by huge margins in order to ensure that you have ample time to review the paper before you submit it.

Will anyone find out that I used your services?

We have a privacy and confidentiality policy that guides our work. We NEVER share any customer information with third parties. Noone will ever know that you used our assignment help services. It’s only between you and us. We are bound by our policies to protect the customer’s identity and information. All your information, such as your names, phone number, email, order information, and so on, are protected. We have robust security systems that ensure that your data is protected. Hacking our systems is close to impossible, and it has never happened.

How our Assignment  Help Service Works

1.      Place an order

You fill all the paper instructions in the order form. Make sure you include all the helpful materials so that our academic writers can deliver the perfect paper. It will also help to eliminate unnecessary revisions.

2.      Pay for the order

Proceed to pay for the paper so that it can be assigned to one of our expert academic writers. The paper subject is matched with the writer’s area of specialization.

3.      Track the progress

You communicate with the writer and know about the progress of the paper. The client can ask the writer for drafts of the paper. The client can upload extra material and include additional instructions from the lecturer. Receive a paper.

4.      Download the paper

The paper is sent to your email and uploaded to your personal account. You also get a plagiarism report attached to your paper.

PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH US TODAY!!!